The Black Death Essay Example for Free

The Black Death Essay The Black Death was one of the worst pandemics in human history. In the 14th century, at least 75 million people on three continents perished due to the painful, highly contagious disease. Originating from fleas on rodents in China, the â€Å"Great Pestilence† spread westward and spared few regions. In Europe’s cities, hundreds died daily and their bodies were usually thrown into mass graves. The plague devastated towns, rural communities, families, and religious institutions. Following centuries of a rise in population, the world’s population experienced a catastrophic reduction and would not be replenished for more than one hundred years. Origins and Path of the Black Death The Black Death originated in China or Central Asia and was spread to Europe by fleas and rats that resided on ships and along the Silk Road. The Black Death killed millions in China, India, Persia (Iran), the Middle East, the Caucasus, and North Africa. To harm the citizens during a siege in 1346, Mongol armies may have thrown infected corpses over the city wall of Caffa, on the Crimean peninsula of the Black Sea. Italian traders from Genoa were also infected and returned home in 1347, introducing the Black Death into Europe. From Italy, the disease spread to France, Spain, Portugal, England, Germany, Russia, and Scandinavia. Science of the Black Death The three plagues associated with the Black Death are now known to be caused by bacteria called Yersinia Pestis, which is carried and spread by fleas on rats. When the rat died after continual bites and replication of the bacteria, the flea survived and moved to other animals or humans. Although some scientists believe that the Black Death was caused by other diseases like anthrax or the Ebola virus, recent research which extracted DNA from the skeletons of victims suggests that Yersinia Pestis was the microscopic culprit of this global pandemic. Types and Symptoms of the Plague The first half of the 14th century was marred by war and famine. Global temperatures dropped slightly, decreasing agricultural production and causing food shortages, hunger, malnutrition, and weakened immune systems. The human body became very vulnerable to the Black Death, which was caused by three forms of the plague. Bubonic plague, caused by flea bites, was the most common form. The infected would suffer from fever, headaches, nausea, and vomiting. Swelling called buboes and dark rashes appeared on the groin, legs, armpits, and neck. The pneumonic plague, which affected the lungs, spread through the air by coughs and sneezes. The most severe form of the plague was the septicemic plague. The bacteria entered the bloodstream and killed every person affected within hours. All three forms of the plague spread quickly due to overpopulated, unsanitary cities. Proper treatment was unknown, so most people died within a week after infection with the Black Death. Death Toll Estimates of the Black Death Due to poor or non-existent record-keeping, it has been difficult for historians and scientists to determine the true number of people that died of the Black Death. In Europe alone, it is likely that from 1347-1352, the plague killed at least twenty million people, or one-third of Europe’s population. The populations of Paris, London, Florence, and other great European cities were shattered. It would take approximately 150 years-into the 1500s- for Europe’s population to equal pre-plague levels. Initial plague infections and recurrences of the plague caused the world’s population to drop by at least 75 million people in the 14th century. Unexpected Economic Benefit of the Black Death The Black Death finally lapsed in approximately 1350, and profound economic changes took place. Worldwide trade declined, and wars in Europe paused during the Black Death. People had abandoned farms and villages during the plague. Serfs were no longer tied to their previous plot of land. Due to a severe labor shortage, serf survivors were able to demand higher wages and better working conditions from their new landlords. This may have contributed to the rise of capitalism. Many serfs moved to cities and contributed to the rise in urbanization and industrialization. Cultural and Social Beliefs and Changes of the Black Death Medieval society did not know what caused the plague or how it spread. Most blamed the suffering as a punishment from God or astrological misfortune. Thousands of Jews were murdered when Christians claimed that the Jews caused the plague by poisoning wells. Lepers and beggars were also accused and harmed. Art, music, and literature during this era were gruesome and gloomy. The Catholic Church suffered a credibility loss when it could not explain the disease. This contributed to the development of Protestantism. Scourge Spread Across the World The Black Death of the 14th century was a tremendous interrupter of worldwide population growth. The bubonic plague still exists, although it can now be treated with antibiotics. Fleas and their unknowing human carriers traveled across a hemisphere and infected one person after another. Survivors of this swift menace seized the opportunities that arose from altered social and economic structures. Although humanity will never know the exact death toll, researchers will continue to study the epidemiology and history of the plague to ensure that this horror never happens again.

The Servants of Twilight :: Free Essay Writer

The Servants of Twilight I recently read a mystery novel called The Servants of Twilight by Dean R. Koontz. Joey Scavello, a six-year-old boy, is the main focus of the book. His mother, Christine Scavello, owns a gourmet shop in Newport Beach, California. Together, the two live in Costa Mesa, a city near Los Angeles. The Church of Twilight, headed by a supposedly psychic woman named Grace Spivey, is the main force against Joey Scavello. Charlie Harrison is a private detective who helps the Scavello family evade the clutches of the members of The Church of Twilight, who are called The Servants of Twilight. It begins on a sunny afternoon in 1985 in the parking lot of a Costa Mesa mall. Christine Scavello and her son are walking to their car when an old woman appears and begins to shout, "He must die!" toward Joey, and rants the phrase, "Don't you know what he is?" Later, they see the same woman outside a window at their house and then she calls them on the phone several times, again saying that Joey must die. It is then that they decide to hire a private investigator. They go to the office of Charlie Harrison and he immediately gives them two bodyguards and a man to keep watch on their house. A while after they get home, two men come with guns, invade the house, and kill the bodyguards. Joey and Christine manage to escape, but know they must go to another city to be safe. After much research, they find that the people following them are from The Church of Twilight, lead by the old woman who confronted them at the mall, Grace Spivey. Eventually, they travel with Charlie all the way from Los Angeles to the mountains of Sacramento, trying to get rid of the "Twilighters". However, every time they stop in a city to rest, the "Twilighters" show up, again attempting to kill Joey. Grace Spivey uses her psychic powers to locate the boy. She believes that six-year old Joey is the antichrist and the son of the devil. She thinks he will rule the world for a thousand years if she does not kill him. The group ends up at Charlie's cabin in the mountains near Sacramento and they believe they are safe from the ten members of the church following them. However, they are wrong, as Spivey and her followers show up for the final confrontation.

An Investigation Of Nigerian Consumer’s Online Shopping Behaviour

Abstract This research proposal deals with an investigation of the online shopping behaviour among Nigerians living abroad. It has been established from research that a few Nigerians embrace technology in doing business. The research paper starts with an introduction about the problem statement to be addressed in the research. The objective is to find out the factors that contribute to the unique online shopping behaviour among the Nigerians. The proposal highlights trends to be investigated that are online shopping in Nigeria. Data to be used in the research will be gathered through the use of a questionnaire given at random to 100 respondents. The obtained data will be analyzed based on the scaled factors given for each response by the participants. The representative sample gives the best results because it uses respondents of diverse fields who are in a position to use online shopping systems. The results can be used by any developing country because the online shopping trends for developing countries are the same. 1. Introduction The nature of how individuals do business has changed from time to time due to individual needs and the emerging business technologies. Electronic commerce is one of the recent forms of online shopping that has been adopted by many business individuals in the world. According to Ghosh (1997, p. 1), â€Å"E-commerce provides consumers the ability to bank, invest, purchase, distribute, communicate, explore, and research from virtually anywhere an Internet connection can be obtained.† Therefore, electronic commerce can be defined as doing business through the internet. This trend of doing business has gained momentum in the global business world because of the increased web advertising (Jackson et al. 2003). This research proposal aims at determining the effect of web advertising on the Nigerian consumer’s online shopping behaviour.1.1. E-commerce development in NigeriaThe basis of electronic commerce depends on the level of technology in a country. Nigeria is a developin g country that has experienced improvements in its technological aspect in the recent past with a total population of about 16 % embracing the use of the internet (Internet World Stats, 2009). However, most of the Nigerians have not exploited the full potential of using the internet fully. In addition, the recent advancement of technology has enabled many Nigerians to see the need to embrace technology in doing business. As such, internet usage has started gaining familiarity among the Nigerians. A research by Folorunso et al. (2006, p. 2226) shows that only 32% of Nigerians who had heard about electronic commerce had embraced the technology. This low number of Nigerians using the internet to do business may contribute to the Nigerian online shopping behaviour.1.2. Problem statementThe use of the internet in doing business in Nigeria is slower than other countries in the world. This is contrary to the vital importance provided by the use of the internet in advertising the product. M ost of the Nigerians are ignorant about online shopping, but those who embrace the internet do not prefer to do online shopping because they assume products advertised in the internet are either expensive or strange to their traditional culture. This consumer behaviour has reduced efforts of globalization into the Nigerian markets. The question, then, is what should be done about this online consumer behaviour to promote globalizationResearch objectivesThis research is carried out to find out the online shopping behaviour among the Nigerians. The objectives of the study will be: To Investigate the behaviour of online shopping among Nigerians Determine whether web advertising has an influence to the online shopping behaviour among Nigerians. To investigate the risks associated with online shopping.1.3. Research structureThis research will start by introducing the problem statement why it is an important study among the Nigerians. This will be followed by outlining the objectives of the study. The existing literature review sets to give the research the basis on which the factors being studied will be based. The methodology section will propose a how the factors can be investigated and why the chosen methods for study are preferred. Lastly the research will highlight the limitations that are likely to affect the results of the study and how they can be reduced to make the results more validated. The main chapters will be as follows; Introduction Literature Review Methodology Data Analysis and Findings Conclusions and Recommendations 2. Literature review Folorunso et al. (2006, p.2224) suggested that the factors that affect online shopping behaviour are: â€Å"establishing cost, accessibility, privacy and confidentiality, data security, network reliability, credit card threat, authenticity, citizens’ income and education.† The shopping behaviour of Nigerians living abroad is unique as it can be identified as unique among the rest. Among the factors suggested by Folorunso income levels and data security was established as the major factors contributing to the unique behaviour of the Nigerians. In another research by Ayo (2006, p.2), he argued that cyber-crime as the major factor behind the low rate of adopting the electronic commerce technology. Further, other important factors have been established as contributing to this unique behaviour among the Nigerians. These factors are inferior online payment methods, lack of trust in web retailers, poor technological infrastructures, and fear of insufficient security in online environments (Adeshina & Ayo, 2010). In contrast to the slow rate at which online shopping has been embraced by the Nigerians, they have increased use of electronic banking and payment systems as they regard these technology issues as more secure. The major use of electronic banking is to pay bills, money transfer activities and obtaining banking statements at any time they wish to have the statements for their daily activities. The major factors identified on the previous research do not point to the exact situation because even through the electronic banking services provided by this technology, users are also likely to be exposed cyber crimes (Egwali, 2009). Advertising is used as a marketing strategy to familiarise the consumers to the products in the market. In a global market, advertising through the internet gives the consumers an avenue to consider a varied field of products that will satisfy their specific demand. Although internet advertising comes with a lot of advantages to both the consumer and the advertising agency, it has not been fully embraced in the Nigerian market. This indicates that the consumers in the Nigerian market have varied perceptions about web advertising. According to Wohn and Korgaonkar (2003), â€Å"males exhibit more positive beliefs about web advertising and more positive attitudes toward web adverting than females. Additionally, male are more likely than females to purchase from the web and surf the web for functional and entertainment reasons, whereas females are more likely to surf the web for shopping reasons.† From these findings, it can be deduced that there are specific online shopping behav iour among Nigerians. The research will carry out a detailed review of the existing literature on the behaviour of online shopping among Nigerians. The researcher will critically analyse the literature both that are in support of the research and those that are not. 3.Methodology This research will use qualitative approach to establish an in-depth description of the problem of the study. This method will be the most appropriate because it does not apply any mathematical judgment of the results (Higgs & Cherry, 2009). According to Miles and Huberman (1994), qualitative approach is the best because it is concerned with meaningful characteristics, stories, visual renders, observations and words. This study will be based on the individual behaviour on online shopping. Consequently, the research sample will be identified among them Nigerian Diaspora students, professionals and business people. The research sample will be conducted to 100 Nigerians. The research sample gives a good study population because of the sample size. In addition, the use of this type of respondents will give basis to the research because these are people who have the know-how of technological matters. Additionally, since online shopping is based on the use of technology this type of respondents is the best research population because they are quite aware of the online shopping activities using the internet. Thus, the results of the findings will give a true reflection of the real behaviour of the Nigerians online shopping.3.1.Research approach and strategyThe research will be conducted for 100 Nigerian. The respondents will be selected at random both that live in UK and those that are in Nigeria. The respondents will be supplied with questionnaires to investigate their onli ne shopping behaviour. The data that will be used in this study will be sourced from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data will be collected by sending questionnaires to the respondents. The researcher will conceal the identity of all respondents for confidentiality purposes. All respondents will be given unique ID numbers like P1, P2, and P3 that will represent participant one, two and three respectively. Secondary data will be collected from existing literature that is in the public domain. This means that there will be no permission sought to access the materials or cost incurred to collect data.3.2.Data collectionThe data for this research will be collected through the use of questionnaires. The questionnaires will be subdivided into three sub-groups as follows: online shopping, electronic commerce and internet usage. Each of the sub-categories will be aiming to investigate the behaviour of online shopping among Nigerians. (See appendix 1)3.3.Data analysisQualitat ive study does not involve numerical values, and thus, an analysis tool will be used that will give correct interpretation and description while at the same time avoiding biases (Sewell, 2008). Therefore, the data will be analysed using case descriptions of the phenomenon. A detailed report will then be developed based on the analysis of the data collected through questionnaires. After, conclusions will be drawn from the analysis of the study, and more so the researcher will give recommendations that for future studies.3.4. Ethical issuesThe ethical issue in this research study will be to keep the anonymity of the respondents. Each of the involved respondent’s information will be treated with great privacy based on individual data protection policy.3.5.Research limitationsThe sample used to represent the Nigerians is comparably small. A bigger representative sample should be used to determine the real factors. The random sampling method is good, but is faced with the challe nge of some respondents failing to cooperate. The best approach would be to administer the questionnaire directly to the respondents to ensure that there is 100% response from the targeted representative sample. 4.Conclusion This research is an important finding that can be used to implement developmental changes in developing countries. Nigeria is one of the developing countries and the trends shown by its abroad citizens can be used as a model for other developing countries. Also, since technology implementation in the business environment is inevitable then it is important to identify these factors in order to make the required adjustments to make the developing countries able to embrace technology. The representative sample will give accurate results of the research study because it will use a study population that can embrace technology. References Adeshina, A & Ayo, C .2010. An Empirical Investigation of the Level of Users. Acceptance of E-Banking in Nigeria. Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 15 (1), 1-13. Egwali, A. 2009. Customers Perception of Security Indicators in Online Banking Sites in Nigeria. Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 14 (1), 1-15. Folorunso, O et al. 2006. Factors Affecting the Adoption of E-commerce: A Study in Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences, 6 (10), 2224-2230. Ghosh, A .1997. Securing E-Commerce: A Systematic Approach. Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 1-4. Internet World Stats, 2009. Nigeria Internet Usage and Telecommunications Reports. Retrieved from . Jackson, P. et al. 2003. e-Business Fundamentals. London: Dorset House Publishing Company. Miles, M.B. & Huberman, A.M. 1994. Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook, 2ndedn, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Sewell, M., 2008. The Use of Qualitative Interviews in Evaluation, Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona. Sewell, M., 2008. The Use of Qualitative Interviews in Evaluation, Tucson, AZ: The University of Arizona. Wohn, L & Korgaonkar, P 2003, Web advertising: gender differences, gender differences in belief, attitude and behavior. Florida: MCB UP. Appendix 1 The questionnaire Online shopping Have you been using online shopping in Nigeria? Do you use online shopping in the UK? If yes how many times did you shop online while in Nigeria per week? How many sites do you visit per week while in the UK or Nigeria? What products do you shop for with this service in Nigeria or the UK? What are the risks associated with online shopping? 2.0 Electronic commerce Have you been using electronic commerce while in Nigeria? Do you still use electronic shopping in the UK? If not, what are the reasons? What functions do you use the service for in Nigeria or the UK? 3.0 Internet usage Do you use internet regularly? What do you use the internet for? Do you think there are risks associated with internet usage? How often do you use the internet for online shopping?

Executive Orders Definition and Application

A presidential executive order (EO) is a directive issued to federal agencies, department heads, or other federal employees by the President of the United States under his statutory or constitutional powers. In many ways, presidential executive orders are similar to written orders, or instructions issued by the president of a corporation to its department heads or directors. Thirty days after being published in the Federal Register, executive orders take effect. While they do bypass the U.S. Congress and the standard legislative law making process, no part of an executive order may direct the agencies to conduct illegal or unconstitutional activities. Brief History or Executive Orders The first recognized executive order was issued by President George Washington on June 8, 1789, in the form of a letter to the heads of all federal departments instructing them to â€Å"impress me with a full, precise, and distinct general idea of the affairs of the United States.† Since then, all U.S. presidents, with the exception of William Henry Harrison have issued executive orders, ranging from presidents Adams, Madison and Monroe, who issued only one each, to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who issued 3,522 executive orders. The practice of numbering and officially documenting executive orders as such did not begin until 1907 when the Department of State instituted the present-day numbering system. Applying the system retroactively, the agency designated the â€Å"Executive Order Establishing a Provisional Court in Louisiana,† issued by President Abraham Lincoln on October 20, 1862, as â€Å"United States Executive Order 1.† Perhaps the most impactful and certainly most famous executive order was the Emancipation Proclamation issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, directing all agencies of the federal government to treat the 3.5 million African American slaves being held in the seceded Confederate states as free men and women.   Reasons for Issuing Executive Orders Presidents typically issue executive orders for one of these purposes:1. Operational management of the executive branch2. Operational management of federal agencies or officials3. To carry out statutory or constitutional presidential responsibilities Notable Executive Orders In 1970, President Richard Nixon used this executive order to establish a new federal agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, under the Department of Commerce.Shortly after the December 7, 1941, attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, directing the internment of more than 120,000 Japanese-Americans, many of whom were U.S. citizens.In reaction to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush issued this executive order combining over 40 federal law enforcement agencies and creating the Cabinet-level Department of Homeland Security.As one of his first official actions, President Obama issued an executive order that some claimed allowed him to hide his personal records - like his birth certificate - from the public. In fact, the order had a very different goal. During his first 100 days in office, 45th President Donald Trump issued more executive orders than any other recent president. Many of President Trump’s early executive orders were intended to fulfill his campaign promises by undoing several policies of his predecessor President Obama. Among the most significant and controversial of these executive orders were: Executive Order Minimizing the Economic Burden of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care ActEO No. 13765 Signed: Jan. 20, 2017: The order reversed provisions of the Affordable Care Act — Obamacare — which he had promised to â€Å"repeal and replace† during the campaign.Enhancing Public Safety in the Interior of the United StatesEO No. 13768 Signed Jan. 25, 2017: The order, intended to reduce illegal immigration, denied federal grant money to so-called sanctuary cities.Protecting the Nation From Foreign Terrorist Entry Into the United StatesEO No. 13769 signed Jan. 27, 2017: The order temporarily suspended immigration from the Muslim-majority countries of Syria, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Sudan, Yemen, and Somalia Can Executive Orders be Overridden or Withdrawn? The president can amend or retract his or her own  executive order at any time. The president may also issue an executive order superseding or nullifying executive orders issued by former presidents. New incoming presidents may choose to retain the executive orders issued by their predecessors, replace them with new ones of their own, or revoke the old ones completely. In extreme cases, Congress may pass a law that alters an executive order, and they can be declared unconstitutional and vacated by the Supreme Court. Executive Orders vs. Proclamations Presidential proclamations differ from executive orders in that they are either ceremonial in nature or deal with issues of trade and may or may not carry legal effect. Executive orders have the legal effect of a law. Constitutional Authority for Executive Orders Article II, section 1 of the U.S. Constitution reads, in part, The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America. And, Article II, section 3 asserts that  The President shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed... Since the Constitution does not specifically define executive power, critics of executive orders argue that these two passages do not imply constitutional authority. But, presidents of the United States since George Washington have argued that they do and have used them accordingly. Modern Use of Executive Orders Until World War I, executive orders were used for relatively minor, usually unnoticed acts of state. That trend changed drastically with the  passage of the War Powers Act of 1917. This act passed during WWI granted the president temporary powers to immediately enact laws regulating trade, economy, and other aspects of policy as they pertained to enemies of America. A key section of the War Powers act also contained language specifically excluding American citizens from its effects. The War Powers Act remained in effect and unchanged until 1933 when a freshly elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt found America in the panic stage of the Great Depression. The first thing FDR did was to convene a special session of Congress where he introduced a bill amending the War Powers Act to remove the clause excluding American citizens from being bound by its effects. This would allow the president to declare national emergencies and unilaterally enact laws to deal with them. This massive amendment was approved by both houses of Congress in less than 40 minutes without debate. Hours later, FDR officially declared the depression a national emergency and started issuing a string of executive orders that effectively created and implemented his famed New Deal policy. While some of FDRs actions were, perhaps, constitutionally questionable, history now acknowledges them as having helped to avert the peoples growing panic and starting our economy on its way to recovery. Presidential Directives and Memorandums Same as Executive Orders Occasionally, presidents issue orders to executive branch agencies through presidential directives or presidential memorandums, instead of executive orders. In January 2009, the U.S. Department of Justice issued a statement declaring presidential directives (memorandums) to have exactly the same effect as executive orders. A presidential directive has the same substantive legal effect as an executive order. It is the substance of the presidential action that is determinative, not the form of the document conveying that action, wrote acting U.S. Assistant Attorney General Randolph D. Moss. Both an executive order and a presidential directive remain effective upon a change in administration unless otherwise specified in the document, and both continue to be effective until subsequent presidential action is taken. How Many Executive Orders Have Presidents Issued? Since George Washington issued the first one in 1789, all presidents except William Henry Harrison of the Whig Party have issued at least one executive order. In serving longer than any other president, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued the most executive orders— 3,728—most dealing with World War II and the Great Depression. Presidents John Adams, James Madison, and James Monroe issued only executive order each. Numbers of executive orders issued by more recent presidents include: George H. W. Bush—166Bill Clinton—364eorge W. Bush—291arack Obama—276Donald Trump—132 (January 20, 2017 to present)